Homeostatic regulation of energetic arousal during acute social isolation-converging evidence from the lab and the field (preprint)

It has been theorised that social contact is a basic need governed by a dedicated ‘social homeostatic’ system. In contrast to other homeostatic systems, such as food intake regulation, little is known about human psychology and physiology under conditions of altered social homeostasis. Here, we investigated the effects of eight hours of social isolation and compared this to eight hours of food deprivation in a tightly controlled laboratory experiment. Social isolation led to lowered self-reported energetic arousal and heightened fatigue, comparable to food deprivation. To test whether these findings extend from the lab to a real-life setting, we used ecological momentary assessment in a field study performed during COVID-19 lockdown. The drop in energetic arousal after social isolation observed in the lab replicated in the field study, suggesting that lowered energy could be part of a homeostatic response to the extended lack of social contact. These findings provide laboratory and real-life insights into the mechanisms underlying the detrimental effects of longer-term social isolation.

Stress and mood regulation using music in times of COVID-19 lockdown: an ecological momentary assessment study (preprint)

Introduction: Music is a human universal that is frequently used as a means of stress reduction and mood improvement by individuals of all ages and cultures, particularly in times of crisis. However, ecologically valid research on stress- and mood-regulatory effects of music listening during the COVID-19 pandemic is lacking. Objective: We investigated the effects of music listening on perceived stress and mood during the first lockdown using an ecological momentary assessment approach. Moreover, the modulating roles of chronic stress and qualitative aspects of music listening were examined. Methods: A total of 711 adults residing in Austria and Italy reported their music-listening behavior and rated perceived stress and mood (valence, calmness, energetic arousal) five times per day across seven consecutive days during April and May, 2020. Results: Music listening was prospectively associated with lower perceived stress and improved mood. For stress and energetic arousal in particular, music listening up- and downregulated levels towards a homeostatic balance. Individuals reporting higher chronic stress showed higher mood valence and energetic arousal after music listening. Characteristics of the music and the situation were differentially associated with stress and mood on the intra- and interindividual level. Conclusions: The present findings suggest that music listening in daily life is a beneficial means to regulate stress and mood during psychologically demanding periods. Particularly individuals experiencing heightened momentary and/or chronic stress due to the challenges brought about by the pandemic might consider music as an easily accessible tool for the management of stress and mood in daily life.

The effects of social interactions on momentary stress and mood during COVID-19 lockdowns (preprint)

OBJECTIVE: Social interactions are vital for our wellbeing, particularly during times of stress. However, previous studies linking social interactions to psychological outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic have largely been retrospective and/or cross-sectional. Thus, we tested four preregistered hypotheses (H1-H4) concerning the real-time effect of social interactions on momentary changes in stress and mood during two COVID-19 lockdowns. DESIGN: We used an ecological momentary assessment approach in 732 participants in spring 2020 and in a subsample of these participants (n= 281) during a further lockdown in autumn/winter 2020. METHODS: Participants reported their stress and mood in a smartphone app five times per day for seven days and indicated the nature and frequency of their recent social interactions. RESULTS: Social interactions (H1) and their frequency (H2) improved momentary affect. This was particularly the case for face-to-face interactions which, compared to other types of interactions, reduced momentary stress and boosted mood across both lockdowns, even when controlling for the pleasantness of the interaction and the closeness of the interaction partner (H3). We also show that individual differences in people’s responsiveness to different social rewards modulated the impact of social interactions on momentary mood (H4). CONCLUSIONS: This study extends findings from cross-sectional and retrospective studies by highlighting the real-time affective benefits of social interactions during COVID-19 lockdown. The results have important implications for the (self-) management of stress and mood during psychologically demanding periods.

Diurnal Dynamics of Stress and Mood during Covid-19 Lockdown - An Ecological Momentary Assessment Study (preprint)

The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in severe disruption to people’s lives as governments imposed national ‘lockdowns’. Using ecological momentary assessment for seven days in 731 participants, we investigated how individual’s stress and mood fluctuated diurnally during lockdown in spring 2020. We found that age, gender, financial security, depressive symptoms, and trait loneliness modulated the diurnal dynamics of participants' stress and mood. For example, younger and less financially secure individuals showed an attenuated reduction in stress as the day progressed and, similarly, more lonely individuals showed a diminished increase in calmness throughout the day. In addition, we collected hair samples from 140 participants and found a decrease in cortisol concentrations following lockdown, but these changes were not related to any of the assessed person-related characteristics. Our findings provide novel insights into the psychobiological impact of lockdown and have implications for how, when, and which individuals might benefit most from interventions during comparable psychologically demanding periods.

National identity predicts public health support during a global pandemic (preprint)

Changing collective behaviour and supporting non-pharmaceutical interventions is an important component in mitigating virus transmission during a pandemic. In a large international collaboration (Study 1, N = 49,968 across 67 countries), we investigated self-reported factors that associated with people reported adopting public health behaviours (e.g., spatial distancing and stricter hygiene) and endorsed public policy interventions (e.g., closing bars and restaurants) during the early stage of the pandemic (April-May 2020). Respondents who reported identifying more strongly with their nation consistently reported greater engagement in public health behaviours and support for public health policies. Results were similar for representative and non-representative national samples. Study 2 (N = 42 countries) conceptually replicated the central finding using aggregate indices of national identity (obtained using the World Values Survey) and a measure of actual behaviour change during the pandemic (obtained from Google mobility reports). Higher levels of national identification prior to the pandemic predicted lower mobility during the early stage of the pandemic (r = -.40). We discuss the potential implications of links between national identity, leadership, and public health for managing COVID-19 and future pandemics.

Resilience During Uncertainty? Greater Social Connectedness During COVID-19 Lockdown is Associated with Reduced Distress and Fatigue (preprint)

Background: Social connections are crucial for our health and well-being. This is especially true during times of high uncertainty and distress, such as during the COVID-19 lockdown. This period was characterized by unprecedented social distancing measures resulting in significant changes to people’s usual social lives. Given the potential effects of this disruption on people’s wellbeing, it is crucial to identify factors which are associated with negative health outcomes, and conversely, those that promote resilience during times of adversity. Aims: We examined the relationship between individuals’ levels of social connectedness during lockdown and self-reported stress, worry, and fatigue. Method: Survey data was collected from 981 individuals in a representative sample of Austrian citizens. Data collection occurred during the last week of a six-week nationwide lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The final sample consisted of 902 participants. Participants were asked to complete validated questionnaires to assess levels of social connectedness as well as measures of perceived stress, worry—both general and COVID-19 specific—and symptoms of fatigue during the previous two weeks. Results: Our results demonstrate that greater social connectedness during the lockdown period was associated with lower levels of perceived stress, as well as general and COVID-19 specific worries. Furthermore, we found a negative relationship between fatigue and social connectedness, which was mediated by feelings of stress, general worries, and COVID-19 specific worries—respectively, indicating that individuals with smaller network sizes, who were highly distressed during the pandemic, were also likely to report feeling more fatigued. Conclusion: Our findings highlight the important role that social connections play in promoting resilience by buffering against negative physical and mental health outcomes, particularly in times of adversity.

Guidelines for TMS/tES Clinical Services and Research through the COVID-19 Pandemic (preprint)

Background: The COVID‑19 pandemic has broadly disrupted biomedical treatment and research including non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS). Moreover, the rapid onset of societal disruption and evolving regulatory restrictions may not have allowed for systematic planning of how clinical and research work may continue throughout the pandemic or be restarted as restrictions are abated. The urgency to provide and develop NIBS as an intervention for diverse neurological and mental health indications, and as a catalyst of fundamental brain research, is not dampened by the parallel efforts to address the most life-threatening aspects of COVID-19; rather in many cases the need for NIBS is heightened including the potential to mitigate mental health consequences related to COVID-19. Objective: To facilitate the reestablishment of access to NIBS clinical services and research operations during the current COVID-19 pandemic and possible future outbreaks, we develop and discuss a framework for balancing the importance of NIBS operations with safety considerations, while addressing the needs of all stakeholders. We focus on Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) and low intensity transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) - including transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) and transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS). Methods: The present consensus paper provides guidelines and good practices for managing and reopening NIBS clinics and laboratories through the immediate and ongoing stages of COVID-19. The document reflects the analysis of experts with domain relevant expertise spanning NIBS technology, clinical services, and basic and clinical research – with an international perspective. We outline regulatory aspects, human resources, NIBS optimization, as well as accommodations for specific demographics. Results: A model based on three phases (early COVID-19 impact, current practices, and future preparation) with an 12-step checklist (spanning removing or streamlining in-person protocols, incorporating telemedicine, and addressing COVID-19-associated adverse events) is proposed. Recommendations on implementing social distancing and sterilization of NIBS-related equipment, specific considerations of COVID-19 positive populations including mental health comorbidities, as well as considerations regarding regulatory and human resource in the era of COVID-19 are outlined. We discuss COVID-19 considerations specifically for clinical (sub-)populations including pediatric, stroke, addiction, and the elderly. Numerous case-examples across the world are described. Conclusion: There is an evident, and in cases urgent, need to maintain NIBS operations through the COVID-19 pandemic, including anticipating future pandemic waves and addressing effects of COVID-19 on brain and mind. The proposed robust and structured strategy aims to address the current and anticipated future challenges while maintaining scientific rigor and managing risk.